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- Associations between weight status and motor coordination during childhoodPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Stodden, David F.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloOrdinarily the relationship between obesity, physical activity (PA) and motor coordination (MC) is analyzed having in mind that low levels of PA cause obesity and low MC. But MC was found to be predictor of both PA (Lopes et al. 2011) and adiposity (Lopes et al. 2011). The purpose of this study is to analyze the association between MC and weight status. Methods Participants were 6,625 children (boys n = 3,344; girls n= 3,281), aged 6 - 10 years. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from height and weight. MC was evaluated using the body coordination test (KTK). A factorial ANOVA was conducted using BMI as dependent variable. A binary logistic regression using two weight status categories as the dependent variable was performed. The odds ratios were calculated for weight status and MC tertiles separately in boys and girls, controlling for age. Results BMI significantly increases across age groups (F (5, 6224) = 50.59; p < 0,001). Children with higher MC showed lower BMI levels (F (10, 6224) = 4.53; p < 0.001). The differences in BMI among MC tertile groups became larger across age (F (10, 6224) = 4.53; p < 0.001). Girls in the first and second tertiles of MC distribution had respectively 3.47 and 1.63 more chances of being overweight/obese than girls in the third tertile. Boys in the first and second MC tertiles had respectively 3.90 and 2.08 more chances of being overweight/obese than boys in the first tertile. Discussion The findings show that children with lower MC had higher BMI than children with higher MC, and this difference became larger across age. The risk of being overweight/obese is higher in children with lower MC. We suggest that the relationship between MC, BMI and PA changes with age. At very young ages, till 4 - 5 years, the levels of PA are extremely important to MC and skills development and to weight control (Bürgi et al. 2011). During subse- quent years and until puberty, children’s weight status across time may be indirectly affected (from the direct result of PA and fitness levels) via the development of MC throughout childhood. Children who continue to develop higher levels of MC throughout childhood will be able to successfully engage in more movement opportunities promoting a healthy weight status (Stodden, Goodway et al. 2008).
- Correlation between BMI and motor coordination in childrenPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Stodden, David F.; Bianchi, Mafalda M.; Maia, José A.R.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloObjectives: To analyze the association between motor coordination (MC) and body mass index (BMI) across childhood and early adolescence. Design: This study is cross-sectional. Methods: Data were collected in 7175 children (boys n = 3616, girls n = 3559), ages 6–14 years. BMI was calculated from measured height and weight [body mass (kg)/height (m2)]. Motor coordination was evaluated using Kiphard-Schilling’s body coordination test (KTK). Spearman’s rank correlation was used to study the association between BMI and MC. A Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyze the differences in MC between children of normal weight, overweight and obese children. Results: Correlations between MC and BMI were negative and varied between 0.05 and 0.49. The highest negative correlations for both boys and girls was at 11 years of age. There was a general pattern of increasing negative correlations in both genders from 6 to 11 years of age and then a decrease in correlation strengths through 14 years of age. In both boys (χ2 (2) = 324.01; p < 0.001) and girls (χ2 (2) = 291.20; p < 0.001) there were significant differences in MC between the three groups’ weight status. Normal weight children of both sexes demonstrated significantly higher MC scores than overweight. Obese children in both sexes had the lowest MC scores among all three groups. Conclusion: Motor coordination demonstrated an inverse relationship with BMI across childhood and into early adolescence. The strength of the inverse relation increased during childhood, but decreased through early adolescence. Overweight and obese children of both sexes demonstrated significantly lower MC than normal weight children.
- Developmental pathways of change in fitness and motor competence are related to overweight and obesity status at the end of primary schoolPublication . Rodrigues, Luis Paulo; Stodden, David F.; Lopes, Vitor P.To test how different developmental pathways of health-related physical fitness and motorcompetence tests relate to weight status (overweight and obesity) at the end of primary school.Design: Longitudinal study on growth, health-related physical fitness, and motor competence of 472primary school children assessed yearly throughout 1st to 4th grade, with an average age of 6.3 ± 0.7years of age at 1st grade.Methods: Children’s pathways of change on each of the fitness and motor competence tests were deter-mined along the four years of the study. Participants were divided into three groups according to their rateof change in each test over time: Low Rate of Change, Average Rate of Change, and High Rate of Change.A logistic regression was used to predict the odds ratio of becoming overweight or obese, depending onthe developmental pathway of change in fitness and motor competence across childhood.Results: Children with a low or average rate of change in their developmental pathways of fitness andmotor competence were several times more prone to become overweight or obese at the end of pri-mary school (OR 2.0 to 6.3), independent of sex and body mass index at baseline. Specifically, a negativedevelopmental pathway (Low Rate of Change) in cardiorespiratory fitness demonstrated over a six-foldelevated risk of being overweight or obese, compared to peers with a positive pathway.Conclusions: Not all children improve their motor competence and fitness levels over time and manyactually regress over time. Developing positive fitness and motor competence pathways during childhoodprotects from obesity and overweight
- Developmental pathways of fitness, and not baseline, predict fitness status at the end of childhoodPublication . Rodrigues, Luis Paulo; Stodden, David F.; Lopes, Vitor P.It is generally described that children fitness levels increase along childhood. Complementary to this idea is the notion that the tracking of children’s fitness is good to moderate during this developmental time, and that baseline (initial values) of fitness are determinant on fitness development. The importance of developmental pathways has been recently reinforced by a theoretical argument that predicts that healthy lifestyle trajectories will evolve through either a positive or negative spiral of engagement or disengagement, respectively, in various physical activity behaviors across childhood that are reciprocally linked to motor skill, perceived competence and fitness development (Stodden et al., 2008). The main goal of this study is to test the hypothesis that different developmental pathways of physical fitness do occur during childhood (6-to-9 years-old), and to test their correlation with baseline fitness status. Methods This longitudinal study design included 507 primary school children who were assessed annually for four years on seven physical fitness tests. Childhood individual trajectories (baseline and slope values) on each of the fitness tests were determined along the four years of the study. Participants were divided into three groups according to individual fitness trajectories over time: Slow Rate of Change (Slow RC Change), Average Rate of Change (Average RC), and High Rate of Change (High RC). An ANOVA 3x2 (Group x Sex) with Bonferroni post hoc tests was used to test for the differences on rate of change between the constituted groups, and sex. Correlations between slope and test values were used to analyze the possibility of fitness performance prediction along the four years of the study. Results Results showed (1)significant differences on the rate of change between all groups (p<.001) for all variables tested (Slow RC < Average RC< High RC); (2) no effect from sex differentiation (p>.15 for all cases);and no positive correlation between baseline values and final values on physical fitness. Discussion The fact that differential pathways of fitness development were found throughout childhood adds to the established knowledge, and can be used as fundament for children’s fitness programs. The level of fitness, even if not satisfactory early in childhood, can be changed, and it is the pathway, not the baseline, that shows to be of major importance for children to achieve a fit state. In conclusion, children show different rates of change in fitness development over childhood; and having a positive developmental trajectory of fitness predicts a fitter state at the end of childhood, independent of the initial values at 6-years-of-age.Introduction It is generally described that children fitness levels increase along childhood. Complementary to this idea is the notion that the tracking of children’s fitness is good to moderate during this developmental time, and that baseline (initial values) of fitness are determinant on fitness development. The importance of developmental pathways has been recently reinforced by a theoretical argument that predicts that healthy lifestyle trajectories will evolve through either a positive or negative spiral of engagement or disengagement, respectively, in various physical activity behaviors across childhood that are reciprocally linked to motor skill, perceived competence and fitness development (Stodden et al., 2008). The main goal of this study is to test the hypothesis that different developmental pathways of physical fitness do occur during childhood (6-to-9 years-old), and to test their correlation with baseline fitness status. Methods This longitudinal study design included 507 primary school children who were assessed annually for four years on seven physical fitness tests. Childhood individual trajectories (baseline and slope values) on each of the fitness tests were determined along the four years of the study. Participants were divided into three groups according to individual fitness trajectories over time: Slow Rate of Change (Slow RC Change), Average Rate of Change (Average RC), and High Rate of Change (High RC). An ANOVA 3x2 (Group x Sex) with Bonferroni post hoc tests was used to test for the differences on rate of change between the constituted groups, and sex. Correlations between slope and test values were used to analyze the possibility of fitness performance prediction along the four years of the study. Results Results showed (1)significant differences on the rate of change between all groups (p<.001) for all variables tested (Slow RC < Average RC< High RC); (2) no effect from sex differentiation (p>.15 for all cases);and no positive correlation between baseline values and final values on physical fitness. Discussion The fact that differential pathways of fitness development were found throughout childhood adds to the established knowledge, and can be used as fundament for children’s fitness programs. The level of fitness, even if not satisfactory early in childhood, can be changed, and it is the pathway, not the baseline, that shows to be of major importance for children to achieve a fit state. In conclusion, children show different rates of change in fitness development over childhood; and having a positive developmental trajectory of fitness predicts a fitter state at the end of childhood, independent of the initial values at 6-years-of-age.
- Effectiveness of physical education to promote motor competence in primary school childrenPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Stodden, David F.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloMotor skill (MS) competence is an important contributing factor for healthy development. The goal was to test the effectiveness of primary school physical education (PE) on MS and physical fitness (PF) development. Three classes (n = 60, aged 9.0 ± 0.9) were randomly assigned to three diverse conditions during a school year: two PE lessons/week (PE-2), three PE lessons/week (PE-3), and no PE lessons control group (CG). BMI, skinfolds, PF (9-min run/walk, sit-up, modified pull-ups), gymnastics, soccer, handball, basketball and track-and-field skills were evaluated. Effect sizes (d) were reported as magnitude of change. Skinfolds significantly increased only in CG (d = 1.21). PF composite z-scores improved in PE-3 (d = 0.61), but decreased in PE-2 (d = 0.57), and had no changes in CG. Statistically significant improvement was verified in gymnastics and handball skills in both experimental groups (gymnastic: d = 2.95 and d = 2.61 for PE-3 and PE-2, respectively; handball: d = 1.87 and d = 0.57 for PE-3 and PE-2, respectively), and no changes were seen in CG. In soccer, there were improvements only in the PE-3 (d = 0.55), and in basketball only in PE-2 (d = 0.46). There were no changes in any group for track-and-field skills. PE programs can effectively promote PF and MS development.
- Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of healthPublication . Robinson, Leah E.; Stodden, David F.; Barnett, Lisa M.; Lopes, Vitor P.; Logan, Samuel W.; Rodrigues, Luis Paulo; D'Hondt, EvaIn 2008, Stodden and colleagues took a unique developmental approach toward addressing the potential role of motor competence in promoting positive or negative trajectories of physical activity, health-related fitness, and weight status. The conceptual model proposed synergistic relationships among physical activity, motor competence, perceived motor competence, health-related physical fit- ness, and obesity with associations hypothesized to strengthen over time. At the time the model was proposed, limited evidence was available to support or refute the model hypotheses. Over the past 6 years, the number of investigations exploring these relationships has increased significantly. Thus, it is an appropriate time to examine published data that directly or indirectly relate to specific pathways noted in the conceptual model. Evidence indi- cates that motor competence is positively associated with perceived competence and multiple aspects of health (i.e., physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and a healthy weight status). However, questions related to the increased strength of associations across time and antecedent/consequent mech- anisms remain. An individual’s physical and psychological development is a complex and multifaceted process that synergistically evolves across time. Understanding the most salient factors that influence health and well-being and how relationships among these factors change across time is a critical need for future research in this area. This knowledge could aid in addressing the declining levels of physical activity and fitness along with the increasing rates of obesity across childhood and adolescence.
- Potential relevance of a motor skill “proficiency barrier” on health-related fitness in youthPublication . Abrams, T. Cade; Terlizzi, Bryan M.; Meester, An de; Sacko, Ryan S.; Irwin, J. Megan; Luz, Carlos J.; Rodrigues, Luis Paulo; Cordovil, Rita; Lopes, Vitor P.; Schneider, Kirsten; Stodden, David F.This study investigated the potential impact of a motor skill proficiency barrier on measures of cardiorespiratory (CRF) and musculoskeletal (MSF) fitness in youth. A sample of 241 youth (114 girls) aged 10 - 18 years, completed the Motor Competence Assessment battery with composite scores indexed according to age- and gender-adjusted percentile scores. Motor competence (MC) levels were categorized as low (≤ 25%tile – proficiency barrier), moderate (≥ 26%tile to < 75%tile), and high (≥ 75%tile). CRF levels (Health Risk, Needs Improvement, and Healthy) were assessed using the Fitnessgram® 20m PACER test. Low (≤ 20%tile), moderate (≥ 21%tile to ≤ 80%tile), and high (≥ 80%tile) MSF levels were assessed using grip strength normative data. Two 3 × 3 chi-square tests were conducted to determine the probability of MC level predicting CRF and MSF levels. Results demonstrated statistically significant models for performance on both the PACER (χ2[4, N = 241] = 22.65, p < .001) and grip strength (χ2[4, N = 241] = 23.95, p < .001). Strong evidence of a proficiency barrier impacting CRF was noted, as no low skilled youth met the “Healthy” fitness zone standards for PACER performance. Evidence supporting a barrier with grip strength was not as strong, as 20.8% of youth exhibiting low MC displayed high grip strength. However, all individuals with high levels of MC demonstrated at least moderate grip strength. Results emphasize the importance of developing MC during childhood as it may provide a protective effect against unhealthy CRF and MSF across youth.
- Testing the motor proficiency barrier hypothesis for physical activity and weight statusPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Lopes, Luís; Santos, Rute; Stodden, David F.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloMotor competence (MC) is associated with physical activity (PA) and a healthy weight in childhood years. The purpose was to test a MC proficiency barrier (PB), below which children would not achieve enough PA levels to be healthy. Cut-off values in KTK test results were determined with ROC analysis using a cross-sectional sample of 734 (353 girls) 10 year-old children. These cut-off values were subsequently used to define two different groups (high and low MC) in a short term longitudinal sample of 217 (118 girls). MC, PA, and BMI were assessed at baseline (12.1±0.4 years-old) and after two years (14.6±0.3 years-old). RM ANOVA (2x2) were performed to analyze the difference in BMI, sedentary time (ST) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) changes between low and high MC at baseline. 2 X 2 Chisquare tests were conducted to test the independence of low and high MC on weight status, PA, and ST. Logistic regressions were conducted to find if the odds of being obese, sedentary, or active were different according PB status at baseline. The MC cut-off of 79 and 75 for girls and boys respectively, were used as PB. In both boys and girls there were no significant changes in BMI, ST, and MVPA, according to MC level. PB effectively predicted significant different classifications on weight status, and combined weight status and MVPA, at both baseline and follow-up. The probability of being overweight two years in the future, when below the hypothesized PB at baseline was 2.78 higher than when above the PB.
- Testing the motor proficiency barrier hypothesis for physical activity and weight status in youthPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Malina, Robert M.; Lopes, L.; Santos, Rute; Stodden, David F.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloThe purpose was to evaluate the implications of a proficiency barrier (PB) for physical activity (PA), sedentary time (ST) and weight status (WS) in a two-stage study. In Stage 1, motor quotient (MQ) cut-off values, based on the KTK test, for differentiating overweight/obese from normal weight, and sedentary from non-sedentary were identified in a sample of 734 children (353 girls) of 10 years of age. In Stage 2, the cut-off values were used to define low and high (respectively below and above the PB) MQ groups among 217 youth (118 girls) of 12.9(0.4) years of age. WS, PA and ST in the two MQ groups were compared at baseline and 1.5 years later. Chi-square tests were used to test the independence of low and high MQ classification on MS, moderate-to-vigorous PA, and sedentary time. Odds of being overweight/obese and sedentary according to MQ status at baseline were calculated. MQ of 79 for girls and 75 for boys were defined as the PB. In girls, the PB predicted significantly different classifications of WS, and a combination of WS and moderate-to-vigorous PA. In boys, the PB predicted significantly different classifications based on combined WS and moderate-to-vigorous PA at baseline. Having a MQ below the PB was associated with a 2.78 higher probability of being overweight/obese. In conclusion, the results suggest that a PB that influences PA and WS among youth may exist.
- Weight status is associated with cross-sectional trajectories of motor co-ordination across childhoodPublication . Lopes, Vitor P.; Stodden, David F.; Rodrigues, Luis PauloBackground Research indicates the development of motor co-ordination (MC) may be an important contributing factor to positive or negative weight trajectories across childhood. Objectives To analyse cross-sectional associations between MC and weight status in children (boys n = 3344 – girls n = 3281), aged 6–11 years and assess overweight/obese risk across different ages. Methods Body mass index (BMI) was calculated [body mass (kg)/height (m2)]. MC was evaluated using the Körperkoordination Test für Kinder (KTK) and a motor quotient (MQ) was calculated.MQ distribution data were split into tertiles. The effect of age, sex and MQ tertiles on BMI and MC was tested with a factorial ANOVA. A logistic regression also was performed to calculate odd ratios (OR) for being overweight/obese at each age. Results Children with higher MQ demonstrated lower BMI levels (F(2,6224) = 222.09; P < 0.001). Differences in BMI among MQ tertiles became larger across age (F(10,6224) = 4.53; P < 0.001). The OR of being overweight/obese in both sexes within the lowest MQ tertile increased in each age group from 6 to 11 years. Specifically, OR increased from 2.26 to 27.77 and from 1.87 to 6.81 in boys and girls respectively. Conclusions Children with low levels of MC have a higher risk of being overweight/obese and this risk increases with age.